Terminal Facilities

Design and operation of specific facilities, as these reflect technological characteristics, are of some interest at this point. Typical of terminal facilities are ports and harbours, railroad freight yards, and the ubiquitous freight house and transit shed for rail, truck, water, and air transport. Freight houses are used to consolidate small lot freight to common destinations for loading into (or unloading from) vehicles going to (or from) that destination.

Freight Houses Freight-house planning is based on a design tonnage from which the requisite floor or platform space, berths, car spots, tracks, and truck tailboard room are developed. The design tonnage may be the anticipated yearly average, reduced to a daily or shift basis, plus a factor-usually 15 to 20 percent-to cover peak periods and traffic increases. Design tonnage may also be based on the expected arrivals of an estimated or scheduled number of ships, trucks, trains, or other units of a given capacity. Location should be near intercity routes, away from congestion, close to traffic sources, and with room for expansion. For an outbound-only rail or truck house, the floor need be only wide enough to receive freight and move it across to the waiting line-haul vehicle, 9.1 to 15.2 m. Inbound freight is customarily allowed 24 to 48 hours of free storage, so more space is required. The area may be calculated as so many square metres per ton of freight-12 m2 per ton has sometimes been used-but depends on the weight-volume relation of the type of freight handled. Live loads of 15 to 25 kN/m2 are usually considered. About 80-90 percent additional space is needed for aisle ways, the higher value when forklift trucks are used.

Platforms are generally placed about 1.14 m above the top of rail and 1.2 m above the tops of pavements, 1.37 m being allowed for local delivery trucks.

For rail freight, the platform length is based on the number of car spots required on one side of the platform and tailboard room for trucks and trailers along the other side. For motor freight alone, tailboard room is provided on both sides. The tonnage for an LCL car varies from 6 to 10 tons and about twice that for trailers. This tonnage, divided into the daily or shift tonnage, indicates the car spots required per day or shift. With tailboard room satisfied, an economic balance is obtained between the annual costs of construction and operation for varying lengths of platform and corresponding number of spots per track and length of track. The optimum design will give the length for minimum combined costs.

Tailboard may be determined in several ways. The recommended tailboard is 3.35 tonnes per metre of platform length. Thus a daily average of 101.6 tonnes would require approximately30 m of platform length or ten 3 m spaces. By law, trucks cannot exceed 2.44 m in width. The 3 m allowance provides only a 0.56 m clearance between any two maximum-width trucks. If service and maintenance are to be performed at the platform (thereby reducing terminal time), then as much as 4.3 m of space per truck is desirable.

Trailer spots should be the length of the overall (tractor-trailer) vehicle, 10.7 m to 16.8 m with an apron width for maneuvering of approximately the same length as the anticipated vehicle length. Parking space should be available for trailers along with servicing area for tractors and trailers. Lighting and fencing may be required for security. Entrance and exit gates should be placed to avoid conflict with heavy traffic routes and to avoid right-hand turns against traffic. Scales to weigh the vehicles may be included.

The roof support system is designed to maximize the amount of unimpeded floor space. Doors will be of the roll-up or sliding types, and, if the truck does not enter the house, a covered apron platform 2.4 to 3 m in width will give flexibility to freight movement and truck spotting. The cover should extend about 1 m over the trailer to protect stripping and stowage operations from the weather. Platform movements are made with hand trucks, pushcarts, cart trains towed by electric tractors, forklift trucks, or drag lines (moving cables to which carts can be attached or detached).

Pickup and delivery is by one of two methods. The swing procedure has the vehicle follow a prescribed route each day. With the call-in system the driver makes a certain number of calls upon the advice of the dispatcher then calls in for more instruction. Freight must be received before an established cut-off hour to be loaded and dispatched that day. Trucks (and rail cars) are usually scheduled out in late afternoon or early evening for delivery the next (or second) morning.

Transit Sheds A transit shed is a freight house for waterborne general cargo. It performs the same function as a freight house with concentration assuming more importance. It operates on a longer turnover cycle and often with heavier weights of traffic. Floor capacities are based on the number of ships to be served during a given period. The floor space must not only accommodate, with appropriate stacking, what is required to load the expected ships upon arrival but must also hold the cargo that is off-loaded from the ships before they can take on new cargo. Covered-space requirements can be reduced by the anticipated tonnage that can be stored on open wharf areas or that will be loaded directly into railroad cars, lighters, barges, or trucks.

A transit shed designed to handle two 8000-ton ships (common cargo capacities are 6000 to 10,000 tons) would have to provide space for accumulating up to 16,000 tons of outbound freight. In addition, space would be necessary for another 16,000 tons to be off-loaded before the outbound tonnage could be put aboard (minus tonnages that are given open storage or handled directly from another carrier to or from a ship’s hold). A total of 32,000 tons would thus have to be accommodated at a rate of 15 to 25 kN of cargo per square metre plus about 80 to 90 percent of the loaded space for isle-ways and space between stacks.

Ports and Harbours Harbours provide a safe anchorage, protecting ships, from the open seas. Typical harbor locations are mouths of rivers, natural bays and inlets, the interiors of coral reefs, and manmade breakwaters and tidal basins. Tide variations, currents, silting, and wave action are problems that must be considered in the design and operation of harbours.

A 7.92-m depth of harbour is said to be adequate for about 80 percent of the world’s shipping. Depths of 10.97 m are necessary to dock the largest passenger liners. Maximum tonnage oil tankers and deep-water ore carriers require 12.19 to 19.8 m with 32 m needed for projected future designs.

Where exceptionally high tides prevail, those exceeding 6 to 1.83 to 3.66 m variation, tidal basins may be built.  These are landlocked basins bordered by wharves. There is a gate at the entrance that is closed during low tide to maintain a constant high-tide level in the basin. Ships enter and leave only when the gates are open at high tide. The deck of a wharf is usually kept about 2.13 m above high spring tide.

A port combines harbour protection with facilities for concentrating cargos to be loaded, for loading and discharging cargo, and interchanging with other carriers; it also provides places where the ship may take on fuel and other supplies and be repaired.

The principal feature of a port is the wharf across which goods to and from the ships are moved. The wharf may be of the pier type built over the water, or a quay built on shore, or a filled-in extension of the land into the water. A wharf may also be partly on land, partly over the water, depending on topography of the shoreline. A transit shed is a usual feature of most wharves. Other elements include an apron between the ship and shed with one or more railroad tracks and paved for land vehicles, tracks and pavements in or at the rear of the shed and, sometimes, a rail-mounted gantry or portal crane of the rotating or turret type on the dockside apron. Apron widths vary from 5.49 to 12.19 m.

Piers are used where shore space is limited or where there is ample room in the harbour channel. Quay-type wharves find use where channels are narrow or where land and shoreline are plentiful. Berthing is much simpler with quay systems parallel to the stream. Slips are the open spaces between adjoining piers or docks.

The capacity of a terminal must be based on the pattern of ship arrivals. Pier and wharf lengths are functions of the number of ships to be berthed there at one time. The usual length of vessel to be accommodated must be determined in each situation, but for a normal 9070 tonnes vessel of 158.5-m length, 182.9 m of berth space would be required. (Containerships vary from 150 to 300 m in length.) The longer the pier, the wider it must be to accommodate the increased tonnage moving shoreward, or vice versa, from the far end. Recommended widths for a pier with one ship on each side are 106.7 m minimum (for one-story sheds) and 137 to 152 m desirable. With two 9070 tonnes ships on each side, a minimum width of 137 m is required, but a width of 152 to 183 m is desirable. Included in these widths are 9.1 to 10.2 m aprons. Marginal wharves should have widths similar to those used for a two-ship pier. Also essential to a port is ready access to land transportation for the assembly and delivery of cargo, including supporting yards for rail and marshalling areas for highway vehicles; it should be near principal rail and highway routes. There must also be servicing facilities for fuel, food, and repairs.

Mechanization The movement of freight from ship to shore, on aprons, in transit sheds, and in motor freight and railroad freight house was once performed by hand. Most of that drudgery has been removed, accidents and damage reduced, and economic speed and efficiency brought forth by mechanization. For very small houses, the old hand truck still prevails, but in many freight and transit sheds, small tractor-pulled trucks are used for detailed movements. The introduction of pallets to which shipments maybe attached for handling as a unit permit the use of fork trucks for moving and stacking the pallets with a more economical use of floor space. Where large volumes of freight prevail, mechanical conveyors move individual trucks around a closed path. A continuous moving chain, placed either above or below the floor, has hooked projections to which the handle of the truck may be attached. The truck is moved along to its proper location and unhooked from the chain.

Where heavy or oddly shaped cargo is to be handled, special rail-mounted gantry, turret, or other types of cranes of 4.5 to 18.1 tonnes capacity may supplement the foregoing. For unusually heavy lifts, tractor cranes up to 45.35 tonnes may be kept available. Rail- mounted locomotive cranes will lift up to 227 tonnes. A few of the largest ports have floating cranes of similar capacity.

TOFC Terminals A trailer-on-flatcar (TOFC) terminal, whether by itself or as a part of a container port complex, is designed for the type of loading or unloading to be used. For end loading, tracks should not exceed 8 two-trailer rail cars. Longer tracks make too long a tractor run. Depressing the tracks below ground level assists by reducing the approach gradient, but drainage problems may be created. Tracks should slope toward the ramp end and cars held under air to compress the couplers and prevent movement. Regardless of the loading system, tracks should be equipped with electric or air outlets for use of power wrenches in tying down the trailers. Walkways between tracks at or near car floor level will aid in the tie-down and release operations.

With moving straddle-type gantry operation, the crane should span at least two tracks and a 12.19-m driveway. Paths for the steerable rubber-tired wheels are usually painted on the pavement.

Trailer parking is provided with spaces preferably slanted at a 45- to-60-degree angle for ease in parking. Driveways, crane ways, and parking areas are paved for all-weather operation. Trucks scales should be long enough for a 13.72-m trailer. Fencing to prevent pilferage and lights for night operation are other requisites. There should be easy access to main highways and rail yards and away from rush hour traffic that might affect truck schedules. Trailer parking space for both on- and off-loading should be provided.

Containerports Facilities to transfer trailers and containers between ship and land modes should be concentrated in containerports. These are equipped with a wharf and dockage, lifting and transfer equipment, TOFC loading/ unloading ramps, and container trailer storage and classification areas. chassis can be handled by roll-on, roll-off methods across hinged ramps or portable gangways. Tracks embedded in the wharf apron pavement permit direct ship transfer to rail cars and trucks on the apron area. Container- ships with speeds up to 33 knots vary in capacity from 200 to 1200 containers and from 137 to 290 m in length.

Containerships may be equipped with lifting devices, but the port will usually have bridge-type cranes capable of movement along the wharf for on/ off loading. Ships especially designed for trailers or containers on

Port capacity is a function of vessel scheduling, capacity, and rate of cargo handling. An average of 20 to 30 containers per hour (2 to 3 minutes per unit) can be used where adequate cargo is already at hand. The lower figure is more realistic because of delays. The number of berths depends on the size of vessels handled and the arrival-departure schedules.

Storage and classification or marshalling areas can be based on the area occupied by one container 2.43 m2 and 10.67 to 12.20 m long, whether stacked one, two, or three deep, with an additional 80 to 90 percent of space added for driveways and space between containers.

Additional facilities will include a TOFC loading/unloading yard, fencing, and lighting to discourage pilferage and for night operation, truck scales, and a port office.

A suitable number of chassis must be available on which containers are placed for movement about the area by tractor. Trailers are moved on their own wheels. Alternatively, forklift trucks or straddle buggies may be used for container movement and for stacking containers in two or three levels.

As container port traffic increases more and more land area is needed for storage and marshalling. More tractors, chassis, and forklift trucks are also needed and the distances to move the traffic grow longer. The associated costs may require a solution with lower land and distance requirements.

Yards Railroad yards serve the varied purposes of storage, holding, reconsignment, public delivery, and supporting industrial, waterfront, and switching activity. The principal type of yard, and its function, is the classification yard, which also performs a concentration function by accumulating enough cars to fill out a train. Classification includes the receiving and breakup of trains and the sorting and classifying of the cars into new trains for road haul, transfer to other yards or railroads, or local delivery. These last two functions are distribution factors. A large classification yard usually contains three yard units: the receiving yard, into which trains are moved from the main line preparatory to sorting; the classification yard proper, where the sorting or classifying into blocks of common destinations takes place; and the departure yard, in which the sorted groups or blocks are made into trains and held pending main-line movement. Small yards consist of only one general yard, certain tracks within that one yard being assigned to receiving and departure purposes.

The track lengths of the receiving and departure yards are based on the number of cars in the average- and maximum-length trains (at 15 m per car) plus length of locomotive (15 to 18 m) per unit, and caboose (12 m); 60 to 90 m are added as a factor of safety in stopping. The number of tracks is based in part on arrival rate of inbound trains but is governed fully as much by the rate of classifying, the rate at which cars can be taken from the receiving yard and sorted into groups or blocks, and assembled into trains in the departure yard. The final assembly of trains involves combining the blocks from various tracks in station orders, front-to-rear or rear-to-front depending on the setout operation employed.

In the classifying unit, each track is assigned a given "destination," and cars going to that destination, and no others, are sorted onto it. Classifying rates vary with the method of operation.

An essential part of every yard is a comprehensive system of communication. Use has been made of telephone, loudspeaker, and talkback systems, radio, inductive telephone, teletype, television, and pneumatic tubes.

The problem of yard location in an urban area includes proximity of the yard to industrial, waterfront, and other traffic sources and to other rail routes, land values and availability, taxation, and opportunities to expand. These are obvious and highly important. More significant to rail operation, however, is the location with respect to other yards on the system. Involved here are problems of traffic patterns, scheduling, and how far in advance of final destination, and in what detail sorting should occur. The trend has been for a few large strategically placed yards equipped with all modern car-handling devices.

Rail Passenger Stations A rail station complex will include the plat-forms and platform tracks, concourse and other access ways, ticket sales, baggage and checkroom facilities, waiting rooms, rest rooms, and other amenities such as restaurants and sales booths, parking areas, and access through covered walks or tunnels to streets and to local modes of transport.

Stations for rail transport are of two general types, stub and through. The through station is, in effect, a way station with arriving trains continuing through to the stations beyond. The stub station is found primarily where the trains terminate their runs. Some stations have both stub and through tracks.

At stations with light traffic, the platforms are usually adjacent to the main tracks. Where traffic is heavy, especially where many commuter trains operate, the main line tracks will be augmented by platform tracks out of or diverging from main tracks or terminal lead tracks. The tracks that connect the platform tracks to the principal leads or to the mains are termed "throat tracks." A general rule is to have a 2.5 to 3: 1 ratio between a throat track and the number of platform tracks it serves.

There must be enough platform tracks to serve all trains scheduled to arrive or depart at a particular time plus a few additional to take care of off-schedule and extra trains. A track may also be reserved to park business cars or other special equipment.

Minimum length of platform is based on the longest train anticipated (car length x number of cars plus locomotive) plus two or three additional car lengths for emergency situations and to provide a factor of safety in stopping the train. Additional length may be added to anticipate longer trains of the future.

Platform widths vary from 6.1 m if baggage trucks also use the platform to 3.96 m for passengers only. Wider platforms than these minimums are found in practice, especially on rapid transit lines.

The problem of locomotive release and servicing arises with stub end stations. This can be met by having additional track length beyond the stopping point and a crossover, so that the locomotive can be cut off and run through an adjoining track to the engine house.

Platforms can be either at rail level or car floor level. The latter are preferred when large numbers of passengers are to be on- or off-loaded.

Access to the platform gates is through a concourse from the street or through walkways from the station service area. When the waiting and service areas are on different levels, ramps or stairways are needed adjuncts. A 81.28-cm moving stairway will move 5000 people per hour, one 1.22 m will move 8000.

The usual intercity traveler moves slowly through the station area. He may not be familiar with the routing, he has baggage to handle and check or retrieve, he may have a long wait for connections or delayed trains, and he may require information, food, and a comfortable place to sit. The commuter, on the contrary, is familiar with the route through the station, has little or no luggage, and is usually in a hurry. He wants direct access to or from local streets and transport.

These two types of traffic should be kept separate to avoid conflict and confusion. In large stations commuter and intercity trains arrive and depart on different levels. In smaller stations, separate platforms should be used and traffic so routed that the two lines of movement do not cross. In some instances, separate stations are in use. In any event, clear, concise direction and routing signs and other means of channelization are desirable.

The coach yard for cleaning and servicing cars and the making up trains and the engine house for locomotive servicing should be as close as possible to the station at major and destination terminals. Trains can be turned on balloon or loop tracks or on wye tracks. Tracks may extend beyond stub stations on rapid transit lines for a train length or more to permit trains crossing over to the adjacent track for a return move.

Bus Stations Stations for buses vary from tiny shelter sheds (if any) at outlying bus stops to elaborate multilevel structures in large urban areas. Much that was said about train stations-the need to keep commuter and intercity traffic separate, rates of movement, service facilities, amenities, and signing-applies equally to bus terminals.

Station platforms are usually of two types: those designed for berthing parallel to the platform and those in which the bus occupies a saw tooth berth or standing. Parallel berths are usually associated with commuter service where speed of movement is required for the riders and to obtain a high rate of equipment utilization.

Saw tooth berths are again of two types. One type forms a flat angle with the platform and has a pullout pocket in front of the bus. This, too, can be used for commuting service because it permits a quick departure of the bus from the platform. The second saw tooth arrangement makes a greater angle with the platform and forms a pocket or standing for the bus outside the flow of traffic. The bus must back to enter the traffic flow. This arrangement is useful in providing many berths with a minimum of platform space. It is used primarily for intercity service where baggage must be on- and off-loaded.

The number of berths for commuting service is a function of total passengers per hour to be handled, loading and off-loading rates, and frequency and capacity of buses in use. The number of berths, N, required for a given number of passengers per hour, J, is

N =J (Bb+ C)
_________
3600B

Where

J = passengers per hour boarding at station

B =boarding passengers per bus in peak 10 to 15 minutes

b = boarding service time in seconds per passenger

C = clearance time between buses (door closing to door opening time)

For intercity buses, there must be enough berths to hold all scheduled arrivals and departures at any given time. The length of time a bus remains at its berth will vary with its schedule, amount of baggage, number of riders, and policies regarding crew changes and layovers. The intercity bus station should be close to traffic sources, but also it should have direct access to intercity routes.

Parking Parking lots and garages are terminal facilities that perform a short-term storage function. They vary in form and complexity from street-level lots to complex multilevel structures. Most lots and structures are designed for driver parking, many have attendant parking, and a few have a mechanized parking system.

Ideal parking places the user in close proximity to his or her ultimate destination. Parking in a central area (CBD) gives direct access to that destination. Many buildings have allocated one or more floors or levels for parking by occupants and patrons. Parking in the central area can be difficult to reach over congested CBD streets and may represent an uneconomical use of land area except as a temporary measure or where an open spot (preferably landscaped) is desired in a building-congested area. An alternate location is at the edge of the CBD but a second mode of transport, a shuttle bus service for example, may be needed for access to CBD midpoints. Periphery parking is designed to keep cars away from the CBD by providing parking facilities at outlying transfer points with mass and rapid transit.

The facility itself should be placed for easy access from expressways, collector-distributor, or principal main streets, but the entrance and exit should be away from congested streets and from the need to cross opposing lanes of traffic.

Lot capacity will be based on surveys that determine total demand, peaking, and rate of turnover. The space-hour (one space used one hour) may be used as a measure of demand and use. Demand should be determined throughout the day in 15 to 30 minute intervals to establish the percent of parkers that stay 15 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, a half-day, a full day, etc. A 15-percent excess of available space over demand is desirable except where a known number of assigned or rented spaces is involved. The size of the lot or structure is a function of number of spaces required, the size of each space, angle of parking, and driveway-maneuvering areas. More cars can be parked per lineal metre of driveway with 90-degree parking with the number decreasing as the parking angle decreases. Room for wheel stops and for wall fenders must be provided. A common size of space is 2.5 x 5.5 m, but this can be varied according to the size of cars to be accommodated. For shopping centers 2.75 m widths are recommended. Driveway space should equal length of space plus 20± percent.

Table 2.1 Critical Dimensions of Automobile

Dimension	Range
Wheelbase	239.2 to 327.6 cm
Overall length	416.8 to 597.7 cm
Overall width	175.3 to 202.9 cm
Overall height	121.2 to 159.5 cm
Minimum running ground clearance	10.9 to 19.8 cm
Tread width (center to center of tires)	130.8 to 163.8 cm
Bottom of front bumper to ground	11.2 to 46.7 cm
Turning diameter-wall to wall (outside front)	88.1 to 126.8 cm
Turning diameter-curb to curb (outside front)	80.0 to 116.8 cm

For parking, critical dimensions are car length, width, height, wheelbase, and turning radius. Table 2.1 shows the range of these dimensions for automobiles.

In multilevel garages, parking may be either along the access ramps on a flat floor with floor-to-floor ramps at the end(s) or at midpoint. Ramp parking permits easy grades and circulation but may involve long driving distances that reduce flow capacity. Ceiling heights (floor to floor) have varied from 3.05 to 3.66 m and ramp grades from 8 to 11 percent; lesser grades are preferred. Lighting and ventilation must be provided for enclosed areas and drainage to remove rain and snow drip. Underground garages may require the relocation of subsurface utilities. There should be a surge area off the street to hold waiting vehicles and, for attendant parking, a waiting room for patrons. If transient vehicles are a small portion of the total, the design should keep those separate from all-day parkers. Illuminated signs may be used to indicate to drivers those areas with open slots.

Airports The principal feature of an airport is its runways, a prime necessity in landing and takeoff for all present-day airplanes. A large, well-equipped airport will also have hangars for storage, inspection, and maintenance, fuel and oil facilities, fire-fighting equipment, hard standings for airplane parking, and taxiways leading from hangars, terminal building, or standing area to the runways. An operations center, control tower, offices, freight, and express platforms, ticket sales, baggage and waiting rooms, loading ramps and lounges, amenities for the passengers, and adequate automobile parking are also included. These facilities, in addition to their other functions, serve to concentrate passengers who are inter- changing or transferring from one flight to another in plane-load quantities.

Airports require extensive land areas and clear air space with good visibility approaching those areas. Proximity to traffic sources and to main roads are further considerations. The large runways and approach areas and the noise nuisance of large jet operations are likely to place airports designed for their use in the regional category, with conventional-type feeder service to adjacent communities.

Runway Length Runway length is a function of many factors: whether the runway will be used for landing, takeoff, or both, the type and weight of aircraft, airport elevation, and anticipated wind and weather conditions.

Table 2.3 Functional Aerodromes runway lengths in Malawi; Source: Department of Civil Aviation

	Region	Number of Runways	Runway Length (1) (Metres)	Runway Width (1) (Metres)	Elevation (Metres)
Northern Region	Chilumba	1	906	30	491
	Chitipa	1	1,815	44	1,301
	Karonga	1	1280 (2)	18	538
	Mzuzu	1	1,303	19	1,253
	Chilinda	1	1,295	30
	Mzimba	1	871	32	1,350
Central Region	Kasungu	1	1,200 (2)	18	1,058
	Lilongwe	2	1,363	30	1,597
			1,383	30	1,134
	Lifupa	1	1,097	30
	Mchinji	1	1,000	30	1,189
	Nkhotakota	1	796	45	524
	Ntchisi	1	922	30	1,311
	Salima	1	1,384	45	515
	Ntakataka	1	971	47	1,597
	Dwangwa
South	Bangula	1	790	30	91
	Chileka	2	2,325(2)	30	779
			1,372	30	779
	Club Mkokola	1	1090	19
	Mangochi	1	800	30	482
	Matope	1	640	30	504
	Monkey Bay	1	990	30	482
	Nsanje	1	1,000	30	61
	Zomba	2	1,305	30	808
			525	30	808
	Nchalo	1	732	30

Runway Capacity Runway capacity is a function of the type of aircraft, prevailing winds and other climatic conditions, and is expressed separately in terms of Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and Instrument Flight Rules (IFR) operation. Practical capacity (PC) is reached when delays to departing commercial-type aircraft average 4 minutes during two normal adjacent peak hours of the week; 2 minutes of delay represent PC for small aircraft. Use is also made of the practical annual capacity (PANCAP). Air terminal capacity is further dependent on the number and configuration of runways and the number and configuration of taxiways to and from those runways. Practical capacity is further related to weather by assuming a -percent VFR and a 10-percent IFR operation.

Runway orientation must be given special attention in relation crosswind.. This requires a study of prevailing winds, usually plotted on the radial lines of a so-called wind rose, which shows the percentage of time winds of different velocities blow from the radial directions. To achieve freedom from cross winds, more than one runway may be required for alternate use as the wind changes direction.

Runways should also be placed in such a way as to avoid conflict between two being used simultaneously, especially if one or more are designed for instrument landings-as at least one should be at the larger ports.

Access to the planes from the terminal building affects the overall speed of transport and the passengers' convenience and comfort. Characteristically the planes are reached via a concourse and then out into the weather. At large airports planes are brought close to overhanging galleries that have telescoping walkways that can be extended to the plane door. Airports with more than one terminal building use various types of buses and people movers to facilitate passage from one building to another. Passengers' luggage is carried by conveyor from check-in points to baggage rooms for loading into capsules or containers that are later moved by tractor train or truck to planeside and into the plane by conveyor or lift-truck platform.

An additional requirement for today's society is a provision for conducting security checks on persons and their carry-on luggage to prevent bringing weapons or other devices on board that could be used in a hijacking attempt.

Service and Repair Service and repair facilities are usually provided by the carrier except in water transport, where heavy repairs are made by contract. Drydock companies give the ship's hull, rudder, and propellers (as well as its internal fittings) a thorough overhaul. Similarly, lighter vessels and barges are hauled from the water on marine railways. Running repairs on rail equipment is performed in engine houses and car-repair shops with major repairs being made in centrally located heavy-repair or back shops. Airlines maintain elaborate inspection and repair facilities in company hangars at airports. Bus and truck maintenance is performed at company garages at principal terminals: some of it is contracted. A few large truck lines have erected intermediate maintenance garages along their routes.

Locomotive fuel, sand, water, and lubricants are placed at the engine-house site and at other convenient terminal and on-line points. Fuel for water transport is usually obtained at privately owned shore points. At airports, fueling is performed by an oil distributor having a concession contract with the airport. Trucks and buses use their terminal facilities for fuel and oil but also make use of regular fuel stations along the road that perform a similar function for privately owned passenger cars.

Terminal Costs The total costs of transportation may be divided into (a) road-haul costs and (b) terminal costs. Within certain limits, road-haul costs will vary with distance hauled, the unit cost usually decreasing as the distance increases. Terminal costs bear no relation to the distance to be hauled. The costs of terminal service will be the same whether the payload is being moved 10 or 1000 kilometres in line haul. Thus a carrier with a high percentage of terminal costs in proportion to line haul can encounter financial difficulties.